No. 212 - THE PENNY MAGAZINE - July 25, 1835

ON THE RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN THE APOLOGUES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

[ WE have received a letter from a purchaser of this work* who protest against our intention of furnishing our readers with a series of fables, characterized by him as "fit only for children between three and four.' We have considered the subject well, and see no cause to alter our design, It is worthy of our correspondent's consideration, whether Compositions which have engaged the best attention of such men as Gay, La Fontaine, De la Motte, and Northcote, as writers of fables, and of Sir William Jones, Baron Silvestre de Sacy, Dr.Wilkins, Mr.Knatchbull, Mr.Hayman Wilson, and others, as translators and editors, may not be entitled to somewhat more respect than he has been pleased to grant to them. We can assure him that many of the best informed and most intellectual of our readers will be gratified in having these fables brought under their notice, if only for the sake of the curious comparision, as to the groth of their own minds, which they cannot fail to make when they recollect the delight which such apologies afforded them early in life. For our own parts it is always with a feeling very different from scorn that we look backupon the things which interested us in our childhood. We beg also to remind our correspondent that the fable itself occupies but a small portion of our space; and if he cannot overcome his disgust we recommend him to leave the fables and the pictures to his children, and confine his attention to the general information concerning fables and fabulist, with which the present and following apologies will be introduced. ]

* There are eleven signatures to the.lettet, but as they seem to be all, or nearly all, in the same hand-writing we address our correspondent in the singular number.

The resemblances which exist between the fables and other fictions of different and remote nations, is a very extensive subject, on which volumes of much interest might be written. We can touch on it but briefly at present; but perhaps may find occasion for some incidental allusions to it, when we come to consider the principal collections of fables which have appeared in Asia and Europe. It is very probable that many of the analogies which have been adduced in proof of common origin do in fact only exemplify those casual resemblances of thoughts and circumstances which frequently excite surprise in common life, and which, as otherwise exemplified, sometimes lead persons in in different countries to so nearly the same conclusion and discoveries, that, when they are made public, we hesitate to say to whom the credit should be given. Nevertheless, after making a large allowance, in the matter before us, for such casual analogies, sufficient will probably, remain to oblige us to refer to a distant source many of the most popular European fables which have been attributed to AEsop and others. This source is in the East-generally in India; to which, after Intermediate researches in.France, Italy, and Spain, and in Arabia and Persia, we arrive at the well-spring in Hindustan. This is by no means, exclusively true of fables only; but extends to the more finished tales of the Italian and French novelists, on which so many of our old plays are founded. Even the story of the "pound of flesh," which forms the main incident in Shakspeare's play of the 'Merchant of Venice,' the origin of which long baffled the search of the commentators, has now been discovered in an eastern author. This is still more true of many of our nursery tales, of our proverbs, and even of our most popular jests. The Chinese and the Indians have been laughing for thousands of years at jokes, the credit of which has, in this country, been given to Joe Miller and other worthies. This need not surprise us, when we consider that many of our arts and a cosiderable quantity of our knowledge have undoubtedly been derived from the East. The same channels of communication were as open, perhaps'more open,for tales and other fictions as for practical and philosophical knowledge.

If we go to India, as to the fountain-head, we see that the Persians, a literary people. had much intercourse with India, even in veryy ancient tims; and they, in their turn, had considerable intercourse with the Greeks, among whom the first European fabulists appeared. It is obvious that the Greeks might obtain from the Persians something of what the latter had derived from India. Then again, in later times, the Arabians had much intercourse with Persia, and some with India, and even with China, And It is still easier percieve how the popular fictions which they thus variously acquired, together with many of thei own, might be picked up by Europeans, during their wars in Asia for the recovery of Palestine, and still more while the Arabians were the rulers of a great empire in Spain. In, the instance of fables, they were probably mingled up with those various nations through which they passed, and were perhaps often altered and modifier, so that it has become difficult to distinguish the original property. We may also suppose that only those were taken from one nation by another, the details of which would be as intelligible in the country to which they were transferred as in that where they originated ; or, if such were taken, that their pecliliaiities were modified, or the characters changed, to render them more expressive, or to adapt them to the aprehensions of the people to Whom they were offered. Thus it would happen that those fables which might have afforded the best intrinsic evidence of their origin, are precisely those of which the fewest have been borrowed, or being borrowed, have lost in their travels the distinguishing features by which their origin might be recognised. Nevertheless, we are of opinion that a large number of fables retain sufficient intrinsic evidence of their origin, to enable a person well acquainted with the subject, and with the peculiar manners, opinions, and products of the different countries, to trace them to their source without much difficulty. Thus, for instance, the fable of the 'Man and his two Wives,' who respectively deprived him of his black and his white hairs until he had none left, would appear to have originated in a country where polygamy was allowed, and was intended to express some of the evils of the practice. The numerous fables about wolves and sheep, &c., may be referred to a pastoral people, possibly the earlv Greeks, and are perhaps the most ancient of any apologues. To Greeks of a later day we may assign such fables as those of 'Mercury and the Statuary,' and others, in which the deities of the country are introduced in their appropriate characters. Fables in which wild monkeys and apes, elephants, and perhaps tortoises, are suitably introduced, we may suspect to come from India, Many in which camels and gazelles are prominent characters, may perhaps be traced to Arabia : as in t in the instance of the 'Camel and the Fly,' which would have scarcely occurred to an European imagination'. As we cannot find this fable in the common collections, and therefore suppose it may be new to many of our readers, we here give it in the quaint language of the edition of AEsop published in 1650.

" It happened that a fly, because of the camel's hair, leapt to the back of the camel, which was laden, and was borne of him all the day. When they had gone a great way, and that the camel came to his inn, and was put in the stable, the fly leapt from him to the ground, beside the foot of the camel; and he then said to the camel ' I have pity on thee, and am come down from thy back because I would be no more burdensome unto thee.' And the camel said to the fly, I thank thee ; howbeit I was not overladen of thee,'

So in the, same manner many of the fables of the nightingale might be traced to Persia, which is preeminently the land of the nightingale. The story of the ' Labourer and the Nightingale,' which we find in some of our old collections, occurs also in the "Rose Garden" of Saadi, a famous Persian author. Vegetable products in fables might also afford a similar clue. We may infer that fables, in which the cedar, the olive-tree, the pineapple, or the pomegranate are introduced, come from or have passed through countries where those trees and fruits are common.

These suggestions as to intrinsic evidence might be extensively carried out, and illustrated by numerous and curious instances, It would be necessary, however, to exclude from consideration modern European fables, not only because their origin is known, but because, from our extensive knowledge of foreign countries, the modern European fabulist is enabled to employ foreign animals and products in a manner which will, to a future age, render the rules of intrinsic evidence nearly nugatory, so far as fables of this class are concerned. Yet there will still be some intrinsic evidence, either negative or affirmative, which it will not be easy to mistake. No one will ever endeavour to trace to India the fable of the ' Elephant and the Bookseller ;' nor will any one hesitate to assign either to England or Holland the fable in which the companies of tradesmen deliver their opinions concerning the building of a city wall. The fable is Dutch ; and we shall hereafter have occasion to notice the collection to which it belongs.

Having mentioned India as the great fountain-bead of such fables as we have under consideration, we should add, that almost every orientalist of note has given his testimony in favour of this opinion. The Hindoos, indeed, are said to boast of three principal inventions ; namely, the mode of instruction by apologues; the decimal system which is now adopted by all civilized nations ; and the game of chess. With regard to the first of these claims, the following is the opinion of Sir William Jones, as given in his ' Third Discourse on the Hindoos.'

" We are told by the Grecian writers that the Indians were the wisest of nations ; and in moral wisdom they were certainly eminent : their Nitri Sastra, or System of Ethics, is yet preserved; and the fables of Vishnuserman, whom we ridiculously call Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient", collection of apologues in the world : they were first translated from the Sanscrit, in the sixth century, by the order of Buzerchumihr, or Bright as the Sun, the chief physician, and afterwards vizier of the great Anushirevan, and are extant under various name-, in more than twenty languages ; but their original title is Hitopadesa, or Amicable Instruction ; and as the very existence of AEsop, whom the Arabs believe to have been an Abyssinian, appears rather doubtful, I am Dot disinclined to suppose that the first moral fables which appeared in Europe were of Indian or Ethiopian origin."

We may also introduce another passage, bearing on the same subject, from Sir John Malcolm's ' Sketches of Persia,' some parts of which we particularly recommend to the attention of the correspondent whose reproofs we have been so unfortunate as to incur without feeling obliged to promise amendment.

While travelling in Persia, he was one day amused by a tale which a Persian, named Hajee Hoosein, related as they rode along, which described how an ingenious fellow named Ameen contrived to outwit a formidable monster in a human shape, who, with others of his kind, infested a valley in the neighbourhood of Ispahan. Ameen having encountered the monster, went with him to his cell, and there, by great presence of mind and ingenuity, not only preserved his own life, but persuaded the Ghool (the Persian name of the monster) that he was no longer safe in his own cave, from which he therefore, took an opportunity of escaping. We give the rest in the words of the writer:--

" When Ameen found his host gone, he was at no loss to conjecture the cause; and after examining the contents of the cave, and arming himself with a matchlock, which had belonged to some victim of the Ghool, he proceeded to survey the road. He had, however, only gone a short distance when he saw the Ghool returning with a large club in his hand, and accompanied by a fox. Ameen's knowledge of that cunning animal instantly led him to suspect that it had undeceived his enemy, but his presence of mind did not forsake him. 'Take that,' said he to the fox, aiming a ball at him from is matchlock, and shooting him through the head; 'take that, for not performing my orders. That brute,' said he, 'promised to bring me seven Ghools, that l might chain them and carry them to Ispahan, and he has only brought you, who are already my slave.' So saying, he advanced towards the Ghool; but the latter had already taken flight, and by the aid of his club bounded so rapidly over rocks and precipices, that he was soon out of sight." * **

"I was much pleased with this tale," proceeds Sir John, " first as it bore so near a resemblance to some parts of my earliest favourite, ' Jack the Giant Killer; and next, as the last incident of the fox bringing back the Ghool, was an exact copy of the story of 'the Goat and the Lion,' in the celebrated Hindoo work, the Pancha Tantra'.*

He then gives the fable, the resemblance of which to the above is very striking. The fox acts the same part in both fables, and in the Hindoo fable the lion represents the Ghool, and the goat the Ameen of the other. Sir John then proceeds :--

"I narrated this story to my Persian friend, saying, 'This proves to me what I have long conjectured, that the greater part of your tales are taken literally from the Hindoos.' 'Is it not as likely that they have been stolen from us?' was the reply. 'No,' said I, 'for their works in which these tales are written are much older than any you have.' 'That may be,' said,he, 'but they they are not older than Keiomerth, Housheng, or Jemsheed. These were the glorious days of Persia, and no doubt it was in their time that the wily Hindoos stole our stories; and if our conquering swords have since made us masters of India, and we have plundered a few tales along with other articles, why we have only recovered our own.'

" Kliaii Sahib, who had been riding along with us, smoking his kellian, but who has not as yet spoken a word, now, with much gravity, took up the conversation. 'I have listened,' said he, ' with great attention to Hajee Hoosein's most wonderful tale of the Ghool, and,' addressing me, 'to your supplement about a goat, a fox, and a Iion. I shall store what I have heard in my memory, for the beneflt of my excelient grandmother, whom it is my duty to amuse. These tales shall also be given, word for word, to my little children, who will no doubt be as much delighted as I have been, to hear how a stupid monster was outwitted by a lying rogue, and how an impudent goat frightened a valiant lion. The dispute, 'proceeded Khan Sahib, 'regarding the orgins of such sublime productions, no doubt involves matter deeply associated with the fame of the renowned empires of India and Persia; and in the present dearth of that article, I do think they are right in claiming all they can for their ancestors.'

" 'I quite understand, my good friend,' said I, ' the contempt you bestow upon the nursery tales with which the Hajee and I have been entertaining each other; but, believe me, he who desires to be well acquainted with a people will not reject their popular storied or local superstitions. Depend upon it, that man is too far advanced into an artificial state of society who is a stranger to the effects which tales and stories like these have upon the feelings of a nation; and his opinions of its character are never likely to be more erroneous than when, in the pride of reason, he despises such means of forming his judgment.'

"'Well, well.' said Khan Sahib, ' there may be some truth in what you say ; and I am the more inclined to believe it, as all the learning and philosophy which my good father endeavoured to instil into me never wholly eradicated my early predilection for such stories."'

* This is the work already mentionedl as older than Pilpay.,

** Sir William here appears to allude to a more ancient Indian collection of fables than hose of Pilpay. We shall have occasion to notice both collection% hereafter.

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